星期三, 四月 05, 2006 

Unit Operations in Food Processing

Home
Contents
About the book
Introduction
Material and energy
balances

Fluid-flow theory
Fluid-flow applications
Heat-transfer theory
Heat-transfer
applications

Drying
Evaporation
Contact-equilibrium
separation processes

Mechanical
separations

Size reduction
Mixing
Appendices
Index to Figures
Index to Examples
References
Bibliography
Useful links
Feedback

星期日, 四月 02, 2006 

The Making of Essential Oils – Steam Distillation, Absolutes, and CO2's Explained

New methods of essential oil extraction are entering the mainstream of aromatherapy, offering new choices in oils never before available. With the new labels of 'CO2' and 'SCO2', along with the traditional 'steam' and 'hydro' distillations, 'absolutes', and 'cold pressing', a little education for the aromatherapy enthusiast can go a long way in essential oil selection. Is one process better than another? Does one produce a nicer smelling oil, or one with greater aromatherapeutic value? It turns out that essential oil production, like winemaking, is an art form as well as a science. The value of the newer processing methods depends greatly on the experience of the distiller, as well as the intended application of the final product. Each method is important, and has it's place in the making of aromatherapy-grade essential oils.
Steam and Hydro Distillation
Steam distillation, the most common method of essential oil production, involves the flow of steam into a chamber holding the raw plant material. The steam causes small sacs containing essential oil to burst. The oil is then carried by the steam out of the chamber and into a chilled condenser, where the steam once again becomes water. (Hydro-distillation is a similar process where the plant material is boiled, with the resultant steam being captured and condensed). The oil and water are then separated; the water, referred to as a 'hydrosol', can be retained as it will have some of the plant essence. Rose hydrosol, for example, is commonly used for it's mild antiseptic and soothing properties, as well as it's pleasing floral aroma.
A number of factors determine the final quality of a steam distilled essential oil. Aside from the plant material itself, most important are time, temperature and pressure, and the quality of the distillation equipment. Essential oils are very complex products; each is made up of many, sometimes hundreds, of distinct molecules which come together to form the oil's aroma and therapeutic properties. Some of these molecules are fairly delicate structures which can be altered or destroyed by adverse environmental conditions. So, much like a fine meal is more flavorful when made with patience, most oils benefit from a long, slow 'cooking' process.
The temperature of the extraction chamber cannot be too high, lest some components of the oil be altered or destroyed. The same is true of the chamber's pressure. Lavender, for example, should not be processed at over 245 degrees F and three pounds per square inch of pressure (3 psi). Higher temperatures and/or pressures result in a 'harsh' aroma – more chemical than floral – and lessen the oil's therapeutic effects. Also, the extraction period must be allowed to continue for a certain period of time in order to flush ALL the oil's components from the plant, as some are released more quickly than others.Despite the drawbacks of aggressive processing, high temperatures and pressures are often used to produces large quantities of oil in a short period of time. These oils are usually destined for use in cosmetic and processed food manufacturing, but are sometimes sold to final consumers as essential oils for use in aromatherapy. These oils will be less expensive, but are of limited therapeutic value, and the difference is apparent when the aromas are compared side-by- side.
Absolutes
Some plants, and particularly flowers, do not lend themselves to steam distilling. They are too delicate, or their fragrance and therapeutic essences cannot be completely released by water alone. These oils will be produced as 'absolutes' – and while not technically considered essential oils they can still be of therapeutic value. Jasmine and Rose in particular are delicate flowers who's oils are often found in 'absolute' form.The processing of an absolute first involves the hydrocarbon solvent extraction of a 'concrete' from the plant material, a semi-solid mixture of typically 50% wax and 50% volatile oil. The concrete is again processed using ethyl alcohol (the same alcohol found in beer, wine, etc.) in which the wax is only slightly soluble. The volatile plant oil separates into the alcohol and this mixture is removed. The alcohol is then evaporated and the result is an almost pure plant extract – depending on the care taken in the evaporation process, sometimes 2% or less of the ethyl alcohol may remain. The use of solvents in the extraction process notwithstanding, absolutes can have incredibly deep and complex aromas.
CO2's and SCO2's
And now for the most modern technologies, Carbon Dioxide and Supercritical Carbon Dioxide extraction. Both methods involve the use of carbon dioxide as the 'solvent' which carries the essential oil away from the raw plant material. The lower pressure CO2 extraction involves chilling carbon dioxide to between 35 and 55 degrees F, and pumping it through the plant material at about 1000 psi. The carbon dioxide in this condition is condensed to a liquid. Supercritical CO2 extraction (SCO2) involves carbon dioxide heated to 87 degrees F and pumped through the plant material at around 8,000 psi – under these conditions, the carbon dioxide is likened to a 'dense fog' or vapor. With release of the pressure in either process, the carbon dioxide escapes in its gaseous form, leaving the essential oil behind.
These carbon dioxide methods have a couple of advantages: Like steam distillation, there are no solvent residues left behind, and the resultant product is quite pure. Like solvent extraction, there is no heat applied to the plant material or essential oil to alter it in any way. The oil produced is very accurate with respect to the original state of the plant. The CO2 methods also are the most efficient, producing the most oil per amount of plant (one of the reasons for the high cost of essential oils is the low yield of oil from most plants – one ton of Rose petals produces less than 1 pound of oil, for example). The efficiency of CO2 extraction is particularly important when rare or endangered plant species are involved, such as Indian Sandalwood – less of the precious plant is needed to produce an equivalent amount of oil.
Cold Pressing
Finally, there is the 'cold pressing' of citrus oils from the peels of fruit, as is done with Bergamot, Orange, Lemon, and the like. This method involves the simple pressing of the rind at about 120 degrees F to extract the oil. Little, if any, alteration from the oil's original state occurs – these citrus oils retain their bright, fresh, uplifting aromas like that of smelling a wonderfully ripe fruit.
Conclusion
CO2's, with some obvious advantages, are not always the best choice for a particular need. They still are the most expensive, despite their higher yields. The resultant product differs slightly compared to one produced another way – the oils produced by steam distillation of some plants may sometimes be found to have a more agreeable aroma. Patchouli, for example, seems to benefit from the steam distillation process by becoming a little warmer and richer. Many other essential oils are quite effectively produced via steam distillation, with little alteration from the original plant state. Oils from other plant species do seem more 'complete' with CO2 processing, with Frankincense and most of the 'spice' oils being good examples where a little something special is present in the aroma.Producing essential oils of aromatherapeutic grade is skill requiring years of experience. It takes the work of a dedicated artesian at every step, from growing and harvesting to fine-tuning the distillation process, to produce a truly fine oil. The making of a fine essential oil relies far more on knowledge and experience than it does on the particular extraction method. There are, however, legitimate reasons to select one distillation method over another – some plants simply require a particular process to produce a fine oil, and the oil needed for a particular application may only be made by one process. In the end, as is often the case in aromatherapy, your own sense of smell can tell you which oil will work best for you.
###About the Author:Misty Rae Cech ND is a practicing naturopath and yoga instructor in Boulder, Colorado. She employs aromatherapy and essential oils with her clients, finding these botanical being a gentle yet effective means of supporting their health. For more, see: http://www.anandaapothecary.com

 

精油的萃取方式

精油是从植物不同的部位萃取,包括花瓣、果实、叶子、支干、树皮、茎或根等,以蒸馏法(steam distillation)、压榨法(expression)、溶解吸取法(solvent extraction)、吸取法(carbon dioxide extraction)、浸渍法(percolation)、所提炼出的一种纯净、清澈液体、不但能散发出芬芳迷人的气味,对人体身心健康更是具有种种不同的医疗效,虽然它称为「精油」,但它并不油腻,而且实际上它并不是「油」,而是一种挥发性高、浓度高、可被稀释的液体,在遇到热或是日光照射时,很容易就被挥发、氧化,不像一般植物油(vegetable)或是植物浸软油(macerated oil)。
虽然大部份的精油皆是以蒸馏法提炼,但像花瓣类精油,例:玫瑰、茉莉花等,并不适合以此法提炼,而是以溶解吸取法提炼。而有些精油像柑橘类精油就是以压榨法提炼。
每一种植物可萃取出的精油量不尽相同,萃取所得的量越少的精油,价钱就越高昂,例:玫瑰精油5公吨的玫瑰花只能提炼出1公升的精油,所以花瓣类精油10ml就通常要上千元,原因就是在此,所以若玫瑰精油的价钱跟一般中价位的精油价钱相等,妳可能就得要问清楚成份含量,是不是真的100%纯精油,还是经混合基底油的稀释玫瑰精油或是人工合成的化学精油,以免上当。
1.蒸馏法(steam distillation) 远在二千多年前古化波斯医师阿维森纳(Avicenna)研发出此法自植物萃取精油,其方法是将新鲜的或经干燥处理的芳香植物原料放置于蒸馏容器中,利用水或蒸气将蕴含植物中的精油蒸发出来,再经导管冷却回复成液体状态,再依水和精油的比重、密度差异而分离出来,大部份的精油都是以此方法提炼。 例如:罗勒、胡萝卜种籽、洋甘菊、肉桂、快乐鼠尾草、芫荽、丝柏、尤加利、天竺葵、杜松、熏衣草、香蜂草、橙花、广藿香、欧薄荷、保加利亚玫瑰、迷迭香、花梨木、檀香、茶树、马鞭草、伊兰伊兰
2.压榨法(expression)或冷压法(cold pressing) 以此法提炼多半是柑橘类的精油,这是因为柑橘类精油大量蕴藏于其果实的外皮中。例:佛手柑、柠檬、葡萄柚、红柑等,其萃取方法就是以压榨法(expression)或冷压法(cold pressing)在压碎果皮过程中加水,收集汁液后,以离心机将精油分离出来萃取而成。
3.吸取法(carbon dioxide extraction) 此法主要用提炼蕴含于花朵、树脂中的精油。将采收来的花瓣浸于油脂中,慢慢加热,使热油脂吸收植物的芳香物质,再经酒精处理,并以机器搅拌,待酒精蒸发后,留下便是芳香精油。
4.浸渍法(percolation) 将花朵浸泡在热油中,使植物精油释放出来,再用过滤法萃取提炼而成。
5.油脂萃取法(solvent extraction) 利用油脂的吸收作用,在容器上涂一层油脂质,再把不能加热的娇嫩花朵压入油脂质,一直到油脂吸收完花朵中的精油成份为止。这种此法技巧主要以花瓣为主,最后以利用酒精等之类的溶剂流过花瓣上数次后,将饱含香精油之溶剂倾析来分离抽取,再低温蒸馏出精纯的香精油。例如:茉莉、橙花、玫瑰

星期五, 三月 31, 2006 

Extended Hildebrand approach: solubility of caffeine in dioxane-water mixtures.

J Pharm Sci. 1980 Jun;69(6):659-61.
Adjei A, Newburger J, Martin A.
The solubility of caffeine in various dioxane-water mixtures was analyzed in terms of solute-solvent interactions using a modified version of the Hildebrand treatment for regular solutions. The solubility equation employs a term (W) to replace the geometric mean (c1c2)1/2, where c1 and c2 are the cohesive energy densities for the solvent and solute, respectively. The new equation provides an accurate prediction of solubility once the interaction energy, W, is obtained. In this case, the energy term is regressed against a polynomial in delta 1 of the binary mixture. A quartic expression of W in terms of the solvent solubility parameter was found for predicting the solubility of caffeine in dioxane-water mixtures. The expression yields an error in mole fraction solubility of less than 3%, a value approximating that of the experimentally determined solubility. The one exception to a good fit is near the maximum solubility, where a depression or valley occurs between the two peaks in solubility data; at this point, the theoretical equation predicts the solubility within approximately 9%. The new model also may be used to estimate the solubility of drug molecules employing the volume fraction of water in the solvent mixture instead of the composite solubility parameter, delta 1. The method has potential usefulness in preformulation and formulation studies during which solubility determination is important for drug design.

 

Solubility Properties of Organic Compounds Course Notes

Structural versus Stick Formulas
Structural formulas show the carbon and hydrogen atoms as well as the bond between them. Sometimes structural formulas show only the carbon atoms. The structural formula for 2-hexene is shown below .
C-C=C-C-C-C
Stick formulas are simpler. They represent the carbon skeleton of the organic molecule. Carbon and hydrogen are not utilized. Rather, carbon atoms are understood to exist at the ends of all "stick" segments and at the union of two "stick"segments. Hydrogen atoms are not drawn at all. The stick formula for 2-hexene is shown below.
http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c122/images/sol01.gif

Hydrocarbons, Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes
Hydrocarbons are organic molecules made up of only carbon and hydrogen. If the hydrocarbon has only single bonds between the carbon atoms , it is said to be an alkane. If there is a double bond between two carbon atoms, then the molecule is said to be an alkene. When there is a triple bond between two carbon atoms, that molecule is called an alkyne.
Benzene is a special case because there are three alternating double bonds within the six carbon ring, presenting chemical and physical properties that are not possessed by either alkanes or alkenes. Hydrocarbons with a benzene like ring within them are said to be aromatic hydrocarbons

Functional Groups
Functional groups are small groups of atoms within the molecule, whose location is where most of the compound's chemical reactions occur. These groups of atoms, the functional groups, almost always react the same way and have similar propeties no matter where on the carbon backbone they are stuck. Knowing that a functional group gives the organic compound its characteristic properties, if you can recognize the functional group it will be easier to understand and remember the organic chemistry reactions. For example - all alcohols, molecules with the -OH functional group will have the same characteristics and will react the same way. When you learn just one of these reactions, it applies to all members of the the alcohol family.

You should know the following functional groups:
1. alcohol
http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c122/images/sol02.gif
2. ketone
http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c122/images/sol05.gif
3. ether
http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c122/images/sol03.gif
4. aldehyde
http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c122/images/sol04a.gif
5. carboxylic acid
http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c122/images/sol06.gif
6. ester
http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c122/images/sol07a.gif
7. amine
http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c122/images/sol08a.gif
8. amide,
http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c122/images/sol09.gif
9. phenol
http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c122/images/sol10.gif
10. alkenes
11. alkynes

Intermolecular Forces
There are two types of intermolecular forces we are concerned with in this lab: London Dispersion Force and the Hydrogen Bond.
London Dispersion
The forces that hold molecules together in a liquid, solid and solution phases are very weak. They are generally called London dispersion forces.
The electrons in the orbitals of a molecule are free to move around. If you could compare a "snapshot" of the molecule at an instant in time, you would see that there would be slightly different charge distributions caused by the different positions of the electrons in the orbitals. The amount of difference is based on the polarizability of the molecule, which is a measure of how well electrons can move around in their orbitals. In general, the polarizability increases as the size of the orbital increases; since the electrons are further out from the nucleus they are less strongly bound and can move about the molecule more easily.
When two molecules come together, these variations in charge can create a situation where one end of a molecule might be slightly negative and the other end of that molecule could be slightly positive. This would result in a slight attraction of the two molecules (until the charges moved around again) but is responsible for the attractive London dispersion forces all molecules have.
These London dispersion forces are weak, the weakest of all the intermolecular forces. Their strength increases with increasing size and polarizability of the molecule.

Hydrogen Bond
Hydrogen is a special element. Because it is really a proton, it turns out that it can form a special type of intermolecular interaction called the hydrogen bond. If hydrogen in a molecule is bonded to a highly electronegative atom in the second row only (N, O, or F), a hydrogen bond forms.
The three elements listed above will grab the electrons for itself, leaving the hydrogen atom with virtually no electron density (since it had only the one). Now, if another molecule comes along with a lone pair, the hydrogen will try to position itself near that lone pair in order to get some electron density back. This creates the hydrogen bond. The strength of this interaction, while not quite as strong as a covalent bond, is the strongest of all the intermolecular forces except the ionic bond.

A diagram of the hydrogen bonds is here:http://homepages.ius.edu/DSPURLOC/c122/images/bond.gif

For hydrogen bonding to occur there are two criteria which must be present:
(1) a center of positive charge must exist on the hydrogen atom
(2) a center of negative charge must lie on an atom that has at least one lone pair of electrons (normally oxygen or nitrogen)
With these two criteria present, the hydrogen center of positive charge on one molecule and the negative center of charge on the other molecule attract each other establishing an intermolecular bond called a hydrogen bond.
These bonds are relatively strong because it involves the electrostatic attraction between permanent nonfluctuating centers of charge.
Functional groups that contain the O - H group are all water-like because they exhibit hydrogen bonding.

Trends in the forces
The intermolecular forces increase in strength according to the following:

London dispersion < dipole-dipole , H-bonding < ion-ion

Solubility
If the intermolecular forces between the molecules of one substance are roughly the same as the intermolecular forces between another substance, the two substances will probably dissolve in each other. This concept is condensed into these two rules:
Polar substances such as water might dissolve other polar substances such as alcohols and carboxylic acids. Water can be broken down into H - OH, thus it has the -OH group which identifies alcohol and carboxylic acids.
Nonpolar substances such as hydrocarbons dissolve other nonpolar substances, but do not tend to dissolve polar substances

Hydrophobic - Hydrophilic
When you are trying to evaluate the solubility properties of alcohols and carboxylic acids, it becomes necessary to consider the relative sizes of the hydrocarbon and water-like portions of the molecule. The hydrocarbon portion is said to be hydrophobic (water hating) because it will not hydrogen bond with water but does tend to dissolve in hydrocarbon liquids. The water-like alcohol and carboxylic acid groups hydrogen bond with water and are said to be hydrophilic (water-loving).
If the ratio of the size of the hydrophilic portion to the hydrophobic portion is small, the hydrophilic portion is too small to carry the molecule into solution with water. If the ratio is large, it can carry the molecule into solution.
The solubility of alcohols and carboxylic acids in water is made smaller when the hydrophobic portion of the molecule is made larger.
When determining the solubility of a molecule there is one final rule.
The solubility of hydrogen bonding molecules is improved if either the positive charge on the hydrogen is made larger or the negative charge on the electronegative atom (oxygen or nitrogen) is increased.

Extraction with a Separatory Funnel
Extraction methods take advantage of differences in the solubility properties of organic compounds. This procedure involves choosing an extraction solvent that is 1) immiscible with the solution solvent and 2) capable of solubilizing the desired organic to a greater degree than is the solution solvent.
We are using methylene chloride because our organic substances are either nonpolar or moderately polar and can be extracted from water.
The extraction solvent and the solution of caffeine-acetaminophen/NaOH are shaken together in the separatory funnel. Acetaminophen is insoluble in water but because of a weakly acidic phenol group it reacts with NaOH to produce soluble sodium acetaminophenoxide. Since caffeine is more soluble in methylene chloride than it is in water while sodium acetamonophenoxide is very soluble in water and virtually insoluble in methylene chloride this extraction will work very well.
Methylene chloride is more dense than water so methylene chloride-caffeine solution will be in the bottom layer which is drawn off. Acetaminophen stays in the top layer and will be drawn off last.
The extraction is performed three separate times with fresh solvent so we can extract the maximum amount of material possible. Three extractions of 15 mL of solvent will result in a significantly larger amount of material than one extraction which uses 45 mL of solvent.Separatory Funnel Technique

Boiling Chips
Reasons for using boiling chips:
1) To prevent superheating and bumping
2) To prevent violent formation of gas bubbles with severe splashing.
A liquid can be superheated or raised to temperatures above its boiling point, especially if it is heated rapidly. Bubble formation requires many high-energy molecules to gather in one place. If superheating occurs, the vapor pressure of the liquid is greater than the atmospheric pressure. Once the bubble forms, since its internal pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure, it can burst before rising to the surface, blowing the surrounding liquid out of the container. This is bumping.
Boiling chips are porous ceramic material containing trapped air that escapes on heating, forming tiny bubbles that act as "starters" for vapor bubble formation. This allows a smooth onset of boiling.

星期四, 三月 30, 2006 

Effects of replacement of maize with dried leaves of sweet potato (Hypomoea batatas) and perennial peanuts (Arachis glabrata Benth) on the growth perf

Fulltext
A. Teguia, a, , R. M. Njwea and C. Nguekouo Foyetteb a
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Dschang, P.O. Box 70, Dschang, Cameroonb Ministry of Agriculture, Yaounde, Cameroon Accepted 2 September 1996. Available online 10 December 1997.

Abstract
A total of 100 4-week-old unsexed Anak-2000 broiler chicks were used in a 4-week experiment to study the effect of replacing 200 or 300 g of maize kg−1 in the finisher diet with either sweet potato leaves (Hypomoea batatas) or perennial peanut leaves (Arachis glabrata Benth) on their growth rate and feed conversion ratio. The results revealed that the replacement of maize with sweet potato leaves significantly (P < 0.05) depressed body weight gain. Perennial peanut leaves had the same adverse effect on weight gain when replacing 300 g maize kg−1. However, when 200 g maize kg−1 was replaced by perennial peanut leaves, weight gain by chicks was similar to that of the control treatment. The substitution of 300 g maize kg−1 by either sweet potato leaves or perennial peanuts significantly (P < 0.05) increased feed conversion ratio. Therefore, the replacement of maize by either sweet potato or Arachis glabrata leaf meal does not seem justified under the conditions of this experiment.
Author Keywords: Finishing broilers; Perennial peanut; Sweet potato performance

 

Feeding of spinach or sweet-potato leaves and growth performance of growing pigs kept on smallholder farms in Central Vietnam.

Trop Anim Health Prod. 2004 Nov;36(8):815-22.
Nguyen LQ, Everts H, Hue HT, Beynen AC.
Department of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Animal Sciences, Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue City, Vietnam.

We investigated whether the addition of either spinach or sweet-potato leaves to the diet of growing pigs, kept in small holdings in Central Vietnam, would improve growth performance. A control diet was formulated and mixed with each of the vegetables to a final concentration of 15% of the total dietary dry matter. The diets were fed to the pigs from 70 to 100 days of age on six different smallholder farms in Central Vietnam. There were three animals per treatment group per farm and biopsies of adipose tissue were analysed for their contents of alpha-linolenic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. The diets without and with vegetables contained on average 0.14 and 0.32 g alpha-linolenic acid per MJ metabolizable energy. The relative percentage of alpha-linolenic acid in adipose tissue was raised by the intake of the vegetables. Eicosapentaenoic acid was not detectable in adipose tissue and the level of docosahexaenoic acid was unchanged. There was a significant stimulatory impact of the intake of either spinach or sweet-potato leaves on growth performance of the growing pigs. It is suggested that an adipose tissue content of alpha-linolenic acid less than 1% of total fatty acids does not allow maximum growth in growing pigs.

 

Utilization of ensiled sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) leaves as a protein supplement in diets for growing pigs.

Trop Anim Health Prod. 2005 Jan;37(1):77-88
Van An L, Hong TT, Ogle B, Lindberg JE.
Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue City, Vietnam.

Four diets were formulated with protein from fishmeal (FM), groundnut cake (GC), ensiled sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L. (Lam.)) leaves (SP) or ensiled sweet potato leaves with lysine (SPL). In experiment 1, 24 crossbred (Large White x Mong Cai) growing pigs were allocated randomly by sex into four groups of six pigs and given one of four diets. Experiment 2 was conducted using 16 crossbred pigs (Large White x Mong Cai) at four farms. On each farm, pigs were allocated to two experimental groups. One group was fed the FM diet and the other group the SPL diet. In experiment 1, the daily live weight gains (DLWG) were significantly higher (p <> 0.05). The feed cost per kg live weight gain was lowest for the SP and SPL diets compared to the FM and GC diets. The results of experiment 2 show that there were no significant differences in feed intake, DLWG and FCR between the two diets (p > 0.05). In conclusion, sweet potato leaves can replace fishmeal and groundnut cake in traditional Vietnamese diets for growing pigs.

 

高胡萝卜素含量品种徐22-5&徐薯18




















高胡萝卜素含量品种徐22-5(上) 徐薯18 (下)

徐薯18是由已故著名甘薯专家盛家廉研究员主持选育。1973年从实生苗入选,1976年开始在生产上推广,1982年获国家发明一等奖,种植面积曾达到3000余万亩。徐薯18以其适应性广、鲜产水平高、高抗根腐病、抗退化能力强等在中国甘薯生产上发挥了空前的作用,目前常年种植面积约2200万亩,主要分布在山东、河南、安徽、河北、江苏等省份。脱毒种薯的推广使徐薯18在生产上更上一个台阶。徐薯18紫红皮、白肉、水分大时出现环状紫晕,出苗旺盛,适合淀粉加工及饲料等。

从杂交组合“Lo323 X AIS0122-2”中选出,是高胡萝卜素型食用种,干物率与徐薯18相当,桔黄色薯皮,产量中等。胡萝卜素含量约15毫克/100克鲜薯,远高于一般桔红肉品种的含量,适量食用可增加人体的胡萝卜素摄取,增强体质,预防维生素A缺乏症。该品系适合用来加工油炸薯片、烘烤、蒸煮食用。

 

SWEET POTATO VARIETIES


1.
Beauregard -- Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station release. Light rose or copper skin, dark orange flesh, uniformly shaped. Very good yield that stores well. Resistant to white grub and streptomyces soil rot but is susceptible to root knot nematode. Matures in 105-110 days. Outstanding new release that has really been accepted by farmers. Extremely high yields with very little cracking. Red-orange skin and orange flesh. Quick maturing with good shape.

2.
"Bunch" Porto Ricos -- Also called "Bush" and "Vineless." The favorite of gardners with limited space. Porto Rico has copper-colored outside skin and light red flesh. Delicious "old-fashioned" flavor, an excellent baking potato. "Baby Bakers" in 100 days. The old "red yam."

3.
Carolina Bunch -- Developed by USDA-ARS and Clemson University SCAES for use in gardens where the bunch habit requires less space for high yields. Roots are uniformly shaped with a very smooth bright, light copper skin. The flesh is deep orange. Resistant to four races of root knot nematode. Adequate resistance to stem rot, internal cork, sclerotial blight and leaf blight. Low level resistance to soil rot. Adequate level of resistance to wireworms, cucumber beetles and flea beetles but not as high as Regal or Sumor. Not resistant to white grub. Vigorous plants form a dense and high leaf canopy resulting in a bunched appearance. Yields are better than Jewel in a 110-120 day growing season.

4.
Centennial -- Soft-fleshed type. Produces a medium to large product. This old favorite is a smooth sweet potato with a deep orange flesh that adds color to every table — and the yield is unbelievable! Tolerates clay soil better than the Jewel. This is America's leading sweet potato. Chances are this is the variety you bought at your local market. Carrot color inside. "Baby Bakers" in 90 days. Yields reported of 500 bushels per acre. Housewive's favorite because of beautiful color and excellent cooling qualities.

5.
Excel -- Attractive light copper skin and orange flesh. Sizes well shaped roots earlier than most cultivars and yields about 15% more than Jewel. Resistance to disease and insects similar to the Regal. Is similar to the Regal in that it has shown better natural insect resistance than could be expected using chemical pesticides. Vine growth is vigorous and ground cover is good. Developed by USDA-ARS and Clemson University.

6.
Garnet -- Deep red or purple skin, moist orange flesh with medium-sized roots and short to long spindle. Best used in recipes that call for mashed or grated sweet potatoes such as pies, cakes and breads.

7.
Georgia Jet -- A spectacular new variety with extremely fast growth (#1 size potatoes in only 90 days) and extra-high yields. Ideal for northern gardens, even New England. Five years of testing in the northern state of New York shows that Georgia Jet produces 2-1/2 times the yield of standard varieties. Yields in other sections are exceptional. Jets have deep orange inside color with moist flesh and marvelous taste. The outside skin is so red it is almost purple.

8.
Hernandez -- Developed by Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station. This late (125 days) sizing cultivar has high yield and excellent baking and processing qualities. Moderate resistance to fusarium wilt, southern rootknot, nematode, soil rot and internal cork. Roots are fusiform, lightly grooved and red skinned. Flesh is a deep orange.

9.
Jersey or Yellow Jersey -- This variety is an “old-fashioned” sweet potato with a golden yellow skin at harvest time which fades to buff or tan after storage. The flesh color ranges from creamy white to bright yellow with an occasional pink variegation. It has a dry, mealy flesh.

10.
Jewel -- “The current Queen of sweet potatoes,” was developed by North Carolina State University. Jewel is still the leading commercial variety planted in North Carolina. The variety is a “yam-type” (moist, soft, yellow-fleshed when baked) with a light copper skin and orange flesh. It produces a very high yield (to 6 sweet potatoes per plant) of moderately short, chunky roots. The variety prefers a sandy soil and is resistant to fusarium wilt, southern rootknot nematode, internal cork and sweet potato beetle. It needs 120-135 days growing time for maximum yield.

11.
New Jewel -- The improved Centennial. The blue ribbon winner for color, taste and yield. Rosy red outside skin, deep orange inside. Bakes quickly with a soft texture.

12.
Red Jewel -- New to our catalog but an old favorite. Deep orange inside with very red outside skin. Bakes quickly with soft texture. Real "eye catcher."

13.
Nancy Hall -- The "Yellow Yam" of the 30's and 40's. Older gardener's favorite. Light skin, yellow flesh. Juicy, waxy and sweet when baked. If taste is more important than beauty, try Nancy Hall.

14.
Kotobuki (Japanese) -- Light colored flesh with a nutty flavor similar to a roasted chestnut that is great for baking, salads and tempura.

15.
O'Henry -- White colored flesh comparable in appearance and flavor to the old Nancy Hall variety. It is a mutation of the Beauregard and was developed by Wayne Bailey, Cane Creek Farms, Vardaman, MS. It is high yielding with a maturity of 90 days vs. 120 days for Nancy Hall. It is resistant to disease where other white varieties aren't. To purchase O’Henry sweet potatoes contact: Cane Creek Farms, 119 Hwy. 341 South, Vardaman, MS 38878, (662) 682-9622. Call Benny Graves, Mississippi Department of Agriculture’s Bureau of Plant Industry, (662) 325-7773 for info about the O’Henry and other MS varieties.

16.
Porto Rican -- Copper colored skin with a reddish-orange flesh. Old established moist sweet potato with a very sweet and delicious flavor. Excellent for baking. Its compact growing habits make it an ideal garden variety. It is susceptible to wire worm, fusarium wilt, internal cork and southern root-knot nematodes.

17.
Regal -- Brilliant purplish-red skin at harvest, orange flesh and excellent baking quality. It produces abundant sprouts and has excellent yield potential. high level of resistance to internal cork and stem rot (fusarium wilt). Low level of resistance to soil rot (pox) and good resistance to southern rootknot nematode. Regal also has resistance to tobacco and southern potato wireworm, banded cucumber beetle, spotted cucumber beetle, elongate flea beetle, pole striped flea beetle, sweet potato flea beetle and to at least two species of white grubs. Stores well but not as long as Jewel. Developed by USDA-ARS, Clemson University SCAES & Texas A&M.

18.
Southern Delite -- Has a rose to dark copper skin, dark orange flesh and excellent baking quality and satisfying flavor. Produces excellent yields and stores slightly better than Jewel. Combination of pest resistances is similar to that of Regal. Has moderate soil rot resistance. Has shown better natural insect resistance than could be expected using chemical pesticides. Excellent sprout (plant) production. Developed by USDA-ARS and Clemson University and released in 1986.

19.
Sumor -- Sumor, which is old English for summer, is considered a novelty as it has similarities to that of an Irish potato. It has a smooth, light tan skin, white to yellow flesh and a high dry matter content. It can be eaten fresh earlier than most cultivars and yields about 15% more than Jewel. Although this variety has only a fraction of the Beta-Catotene found in orange varities, it does contain more Vitamin C than most tomatoes. Resistance to disease and insects similar to Regal. Vine growth is vigorous and ground cover is good. Developed by USDA-ARS and Clemson University SCAES. Sumer should be grown in climates too hot for Irish potatoes. You won’t be able to tell the difference.

20.
Vardaman -- A bush variety with deep orange flesh. Perfect for the limited-space garden, where its beautiful deep red and green foliage makes it equally attractive as an ornamental. Released by the Mississippi Agricultural Extension Service in 1981. Is considered the best short-vined variety for eating. Has better resistance to fusarium wilt than older short vines (only 4’-5’ in length). The latest release and our most spectacular. Our second "Bush" variety. Golden yellow outside skin that darkens soon after digging. Deepest, brightest orange color of all.

 

国内外甘薯研究现状--徐州甘薯研究中心育种室

一、甘薯的生产与消费现状:  

1.世界甘薯的生产。 
 
据联合国粮农组织(FAO)统计,世界上共有111个国家栽培甘薯,栽培面积主要分布在亚洲、非洲的发展中国家,其次为拉丁美洲,欧洲面积极少。1997年世界甘薯栽培面积为904.6万公顷,总产为13675.6万t,其中97.9%的面积集中在发展中国家。亚洲为世界甘薯的主产区,60-70年代间占世界栽培总面积的85%-90%,近年来比例明显减少,1997年栽培面积为717.8万公顷,占世界总面积的79.3%;总产量为12505.8万t,占世界总产量的91.4%;平均单产为17t/公顷,高于世界平均水平。亚洲栽培面积较大的国家有中国、越南、印度尼西亚等。非洲甘薯栽培面积占世界面积的16.7%;总产为695.7万t,仅占世界总产量的5.1%;由于巨大的粮食压力,甘薯面积仍呈扩大的趋势。非洲栽培面积较大的国家有乌干达、坦桑尼亚等,由于非洲的农业自然条件较差,以及严重的病毒危害等原因,每公顷产量仅达5t。日本、美国、韩国等发达国家和地区栽培面积一直呈下降趋势,目前栽培面积仅相当于60年代的5%。  

2.世界甘薯消费与市场情况。  

世界各国甘薯的消费随着社会经济的发展,一般经历食用为主;饲用、食用、加工并重;加工为主,食饲兼用等几个阶段。发达国家与发展中国家甘薯的消费形式截然不同。日本、韩国和中国台湾省近年来面积减少很多,作为淀粉原料的主要用途因廉价玉米淀粉的进口,而迅速下降,甚至被挤出市场,现特别强调其保健功能和优质鲜食用途,另外一些方便加工食品颇受欢迎。美国一直将甘薯作为精美的食品食用,特别偏爱橘红色薯肉的品种。许多发达国家还将甘薯茎叶作为优质蔬菜食用,素有“蔬菜皇后”之美誉。发达国家人均年消费仅2-6kg。中国甘薯消费已转向加工为主阶段,淀粉所占比例最大,优质鲜薯食用、菜用市场正在开发。甘薯在部分发展中国家作为粮食的功能并没有衰退,非洲一些国家几乎将甘薯全部作为食用,甚至作为食物能量重要的来源。乌干达、布隆迪等国人均年消费100kg左右。发展中国家人均消费15.5kg高于发达国家数倍。国际市场上甘薯及其产品所占份额极小。  

3.甘薯生产中存在的问题和科研动向。

  病毒病危害严重是甘薯生产中重要问题,由于资金投入、技术投入和抗病毒品种缺乏,脱毒品种的检测手段、标准不普及,脱毒种薯推广力度不大。由于贮藏、运输等条件的限制,甘薯及其加工产品在国际市场上成交份额很小。育种基础性研究不够,育种方法相对比其他作物落后,育成品种在品质(营养品质和加工品质)不优,抗病性、抗逆性等能力不强。加工技术多停留在农户水平,缺乏先进实用的加工技术。甘薯蚁象在热带发展中国家危害猖獗,国际马铃薯中心称之为需重点解决的头号难题。  世界各国的甘薯育种目标略有不同,发达国家强调食用保健、抗病虫及适宜机械化操作等的品种,强调在满足市场需求的同时减低农药施用量。国际马铃薯中心提出的育种目标为高干、高产、耐病毒、抗疮痂病、耐旱、耐瘠等。中国甘薯育种的主要目标为高干率、高产、抗病、优质、菜用等专用型品种的选育已越来越重要。甘薯生物技术研究远落后于其他作物,日、美等国科技人员正寻求甘薯品质和抗性改良的生物技术途径。甘薯基因工程的研究取得了一定的进展,但距实际应用还有一段距离;发达国家在甘薯作为航天食物的开发,防癌保健食品的开发方面作了许多工作。  

二、甘薯生产的发展预测:  

甘薯兼具有粮食作物和经济作物的特点,近年来发展中国家为满足对粮食的需求和经济发展的需求,甘薯在近年内必须保持一定的面积。2015年世界甘薯面积总体下降,单产将达到22t/公顷,总产达到12980万t。2030年应该说总产基本保持不动,单产水平继续提高,栽培面符号下降速度较快。随着社会的发展、科技的进步、农村生产条件的改变,以及人们膳食结构的调整,食物多样化,到2050年时,甘薯作物栽培面积将有较大幅度减少,总面积达现在的30%-40%,单产相当于现在的200%左右,总 仍可以满足消费需要(表2)。  

三、甘薯生产的发展对策:

  1.加大宣传力度,重新认识甘薯作物。甘薯在发展节水农业、旱地农业中占有重要的位置。甘薯具有特殊保健功能。甘薯的防癌效果位于40余种防癌蔬菜的首位。

  2.调整政策,加大投入。

  3.建立脱毒种薯繁育基地,严格种薯质量监控。

  4.提高以育种为中心的科研水平。

  5.推广先进实用的栽培技术。

  6.加强产后加工研究。

 

Phytochemicals and pulp from vegetable crops waste

By Maria Teresa S. AgarradoMediaCore, PCARRD
Farm and market wastes from crops' non-edible parts such as stems, leaves, roots and other plant refuse have more important uses than just burned or left to decay on the field or wasted in dumpsites.
Aside from being green manure or compost, crop wastes can be sources of phytochemicals or bioactive substances such as alkaloids, flavonoids, and saponins. These substances are essential in the production of environment-safe and natural-based cosmetics, medicines, and pesticides.
Crop wastes also have cellulose substances or pulp that can be used for papermaking.
Alkaloids have strong anti-bacterial and anti-cancer biological activity and are widely used as component of drug and herbal formulations.
Flavonoids act as potential antioxidants and anti-aging agents in cosmetic products. These have anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic activities that inhibit growth of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi.
Saponins are surface-active agents producing foamy suds when mixed with water. These are used as ingredients for cosmetics, detergents, shampoos, emulsifiers, and fire extinguishers. Saponins exhibit hemolytic properties, which act as poison, show cytotoxic or pesticidal activity, and have a variety of medicinal applications. They can inhibit growth of cancer cells, lower cholesterol, boost immune system and energy, act as natural antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidant.
Common vegetable crops, such as ampalaya, singkamas, tomato, bataw, saluyot, eggplant, garlic, onion, and sitao contain these phytochemicals. They possess medicinal, antipyretic, analgesic, and cytotoxic or pesticidal properties.
Extracts from the seeds of ampalaya contain alkaloids, flavonoids, and saponins, which have insecticidal property against fruitfly. The same phytochemicals extracted from the seeds of singkamas are also effective as insecticide against green leafhopper.
Saponin extracts from the stems, roots, and leaves of the ?Apollo' tomato variety have insecticidal property against brown planthopper. The extracts also contain anti-tumor agent.On the other hand, extracts from the leaves, stems, and roots of the native tomato variety contain saponins that have antibacterial action against disease-causing bacteria called Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus.Extracts from the seeds of bataw contain saponins and alkaloids with anti-tumor agent.The leaves, pods, and seeds of saluyot have alkaloids, saponins, and aromatic groups with anti-mutagenic property, that is, it can prevent mutation of cells that can lead to cancer. The leaves, stems and fruits of ?Dumaguete Long Purple' eggplant variety contain saponins with pesticidal properties.
Meanwhile, saponin extracts from the leaves, fruits, and stems of ?Nueva Ecija Green' eggplant have antipyretic property that can lower fever similar to the action of aspirin.The cloves of native garlic contain aromatic and aliphatic groups that can prevent formation of the fungi Aspergillus flavus or molds usually found in peanuts and corn, and in processed foods such as cheese and milk. The garlic extracts can also fight bacterial pathogens Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus.The flavonoid and saponin extracts from the bulb of red onion exhibit antibacterial properties against Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Extracts from the skin and bulb of yellow granex onion have antipyretic and mild analgesic or pain relieving properties.The leaves, vines, flowers, pods, and roots of sitao contain saponins and flavonoids with fungicidal property against rice fungi, Pyricularia oryzae.Vines of ampalaya and rice straw are potential sources of pulp for papermaking. Paper from ampalaya is tougher than rice straw paper. The Philippine Seed Board Rice varieties that can be used for rice straw papermaking are PSB Rc24, 40, 60, and 62. PSB Rc24 variety produces the brightest and thickest paper, most resistant to ink penetration, and least resistant to water penetration. These mind-twisting findings came out in a study called ?
Investigation of selected agricultural products and wastes in Region III as sources of natural products and pulp? by a team of researchers at Central Luzon State University led by Lilia D. Torres. The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development monitored the study

 

The Need for Lutein®

More and more people are discovering the benefits of including lutein in their diets for overall health.
The latest awareness survey on lutein found that 44%of Americans had heard of lutein. The study also found that over 50% of females in the United States are aware of lutein. Products containing lutein are in high demand by consumers who don't have time or don't choose to consume enough lutein in their diets. In fact, vitamin brands with lutein grew eight times faster than average.
This heightened awareness brings increasing demand for products containing Lutein.

What is Lutein?
Lutein is a carotenoid found in vegetables and fruits. It is not made in the body and can only be obtained through large amounts of certain fruits and vegetables or through food and vitamin supplements.

Lutein has been found in the eye, serum, skin, cervix, brain and breast. Within the human eye, lutein deposits itself in the macular region as well as the entire retina, ciliary iris bodies and lens.
How does it work?
Like all carotenoids, lutein is an antioxidant that may protect the macula tissue from destructive oxidation reactions by quenching free radicals. Lutein also filters high-energy blue light that can damage the macula and skin.

Why do my customers need lutein?
Insufficient levels of lutein in the macula have been identified as a risk factor in the onset of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of irreversible blindness among adults over the age of 50 in the United States. Studies have shown that lutein deposits in the eye may reduce the formation of cataracts and retinal diseases.

While lutein is found abundantly in green leafy vegetables such as spinach and kale, few of us eat enough to get an adequate intake of lutein. Nutrition experts suggest consuming at least 6 milligrams of lutein a day. However, to achieve that amount, one must eat a large bowl of spinach salad.

Many people find this difficult to do on a daily basis. That is why adding FloraGLO brand Lutein to dietary supplements or foods and beverages is the ideal way to help consumers achieve their daily needs of lutein.

Kemin Solutions
FloraGLO brand Lutein is the proven, patented, and purified choice for vitamin and dietary supplement marketers who want to leverage the growing awareness of this powerful antioxidant's health benefits into increased sales.
Since the 1994 groundbreaking research at Harvard University Medical School, Kemin Health has invested in educating healthcare professionals, vision specialists, and consumers about this naturally occurring carotenoid.

Purified Lutein
FloraGLO brand Lutein is purified from marigold extract using patented processes so consumers can be sure supplements containing FloraGLO brand Lutein contain the same lutein that is found in nature.

Unlike lutein esters, FloraGLO brand lutein is chemically identical to lutein found in spinach, kale, collard greens, and other green leafy vegetables in our diet. In fact, 93 percent of the lutein absorbed by the human body is present as lutein - not lutein esters.
Leveraging The Brand

After it was established as the lutein of choice in health food stores, FloraGLO brand Lutein became the leading lutein in mass-market vitamin and supplement brands.

Currently, more than 100 manufacturers worldwide - including seven of the top 10 dietary supplement manufacturers based on market share - leverage the FloraGLO brand by incorporating the FloraGLO logo on product packaging.

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星期三, 三月 29, 2006 

Consumption of purple sweet potato leaves modulates human immune response: T-lymphocyte functions, lytic activity of natural killer cell and antibody

ISSN 1007-9327 CN 14-1219/R World J Gastroenterol 2005 October 7;11(37):5777-5781
Consumption of purple sweet potato leaves modulates human immune response: T-lymphocyte functions, lytic activity of natural killer cell and antibody production
Chiao-Ming Chen, Sing-Chung Li, Ya-Ling Lin, Ching-Yun Hsu, Ming-Jer Shieh, Jen-Fang Liu

Chiao-Ming Chen, Graduate Institute of Pharmacy, Graduate Institute of Nutrition and Health Sciences, Taipei Medical University; Department of Dietetics, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ChinaSing-Chung Li, Ya-Ling Lin, Ming-Jer Shieh, Jen-Fang Liu, School of Nutrition and Health Sciences, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ChinaChing-Yun Hsu, Chang-Gung Institute of Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ChinaSupported by the Grant From the Taipei Medical University, No. TMU91-Y05-A110, TMU92-AE1-B33Correspondence to: Dr. Jen-Fang Liu, School of Nutrition and Health Sciences, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wu-Shing Street, Taipei 110, Taiwan, China. liujenfa@tmu.edu.tw
Telephone: +886-2-27361661-6551 Fax: +886-2-27373112
Received: 2004-12-10 Accepted: 2005-01-05

AbstractAIM: To study the immunological effects of physiological doses of purple sweet potato leaves (PSPL).
METHODS: The randomized crossover study (two periods, each lasting for 2 wk) involved 16 healthy non-smoking adults of normal weight. The 6-wk study consisted of a run-in (wk 1) PSPL diet (daily consumption of 200 g PSPL) or a control diet (low polyphenols, with the amount of carotenoids adjusted to the same level as that of PSPL) (wk 2-3), washout diet (wk 4), and switched diet (wk 5-6). Fasting blood was collected weekly in the morning. T-lymphocyte function was assessed via the proliferation and secretion of immunoreactive cytokines. Salivary IgA secretion and the specific cytotoxic activities of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells were determined.
RESULTS: The plasma b-carotene level increased with time in both groups, while the plasma polyphenol level decreased in the control group, and no significant difference was detected between the two groups. Although plasma polyphenol levels did not significantly increase in the PSPL group at the end of the study, they were significantly elevated in urine. PSPL consumption produced a significant increase in proliferation responsiveness of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and their secretion of immunoreactive IL-2 and IL-4. As well, lytic activity in NK cells was elevated in a time-dependent fashion. Salivary IgA secretion significantly decreased in control group after 2 wk, and returned to baseline following dietary switch to PSPL.
CONCLUSION: Consumption of PSPL modulates various immune functions including increased proliferation responsiveness of PBMC, secretion of cytokines IL-2 and IL-4, and the lytic activity of NK cells. The responsible determinants of PSPL remain to be elucidated, as does the biological significance of the present observations.
© 2005 The WJG Press and Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Key words: Purple sweet potato leaves; Polyphenol; Immune functionChen CM, Li SC, Lin YL, Hsu CY, Shieh MJ, Liu JF. Consumption of purple sweet potato leaves modulates human immune response: T-lymphocyte functions, lytic activity of natural killer cell and antibody production. World J Gastroenterol 2005; 11(37): 5777-5781

 

Stereoisomerism


Stereoisomerism is the arrangement of atoms in molecules whose connectivity remains the same but their arrangement in space is different in each isomer.
The two main types of stereoisomerism are:
cis-trans isomerism
optical isomerism

Cis-trans Isomerism
For example a geometrical isomerism occurs when a double bond is present, because the pi bond involved prevents that bond from being "twisted" the same way that a single bond can be. A good example is 1,2-dichloroethene: C2H2Cl2. Consider the two examples below:


The two molecules shown above are cis-1,2-dichloroethene and trans-1,2-dichloroethene. This is more specifically an example of cis-trans isomerism. These two molecules are geometrical isomers because the two carbon atoms cannot be rotated relative to each other, due to the rigidity caused by the pi bond between them. Therefore, they are not "superimposeable" - they are not identical, and cannot take each other's place. Geometrical isomers have different chemical and physical properties and can exhibit dramatically different biological activity.
Optical Isomerism
Optical isomers are stereoisomers formed when asymmetric centers are present, for example, a carbon with four different groups bonded to it. Enantiomers are two optical isomers that are reflections of each other. Every stereocenter in one has the opposite configuration in the other. Compounds that are enantiomers of each other have the same physical properties, except for the direction in which they rotate polarized light and how they interact with different optical isomers of other compounds. In nature, most biological compounds, such as amino acids, occur as single enantiomers. As a result, different enantiomers of a compound may have substantially different biological effects. When a molecule has more than one source of asymmetry, two optical isomers may be neither perfect reflections of each other nor superimposeable: some but not all stereocenters are inverted. These molecules are called they are diastereomers, not enantiomers. Diastereomers seldom have the same physical properties.

 

叶黄素的提取与分离

科学家们对叶黄素化学结构的研究表明:它具有3个属性中心,8种立体异构体(实际上自然界中只存在一种异构体)。因为工艺太复杂,在化学上人工合成单一异构体的叶黄素至今尚未成功。目前只有从天然植物中提取出的叶黄素才含具有抗氧化作用的生物活性物质。国外一些公司正在探索新的叶黄素生产途径。
富含叶黄素的天然植物主要有:万寿菊、金盏花、羽衣甘蓝、蚕沙、猕猴桃、菠菜、南瓜、苜蓿、蛋黄、黄色玉米等。其中万寿菊、金盏花中叶黄素含量较高。提取溶剂有环己烷、石油醚、丙酮、乙醇、四氢呋喃等。

2.1 国外公司研究现状
国外专利报道的提取方法和检测方法较多:a)从金盏花中同时用四氢呋喃提取和皂化叶黄素酯。b)从绿色植物中分离类胡萝卜素。c)从蚕沙中用丙酮和石油醚提取叶黄素。

意大利Fabio等人采用浓缩富集、离心分离、冷冻干燥等工艺,从苜蓿中分离得到富含胡萝卜素和叶黄素的浓缩物,而后联用CO2萃取工艺,在不同的萃取工艺下,分别得到胡萝卜素和叶黄素。美国凯明(Kemin)食品公司发明了生产叶黄素的新工艺,使叶黄素成为一种新型保健食品添加剂。该公司从大量野生的金盏花中提取叶黄素成品结晶。另据报道,该公司正在计划生产富含叶黄素的“超视力饮料”。美国食品和药物管理局1995年即已批准叶黄素作为食品补充剂用于食品饮料,以提高其营养价值;德国巴斯夫维生家公司开发出含有叶黄素的鸡饲料添加剂,其产品在我国的上海、广州、香港都有销售;南美洲的Henkle公司已从资源丰富的南瓜和榨汁后的桶渣中提取出叶黄素酯(Xangold)。由于叶黄素酯在人体内可自动转化成为叶黄素,因此叶黄素酯的成功提取大大拓展了叶黄素的来源。

2.2 国内研究现状
叶黄素的应用在我国尚未引起食品和医药行业的重视,有关国内开发叶黄素及富含叶黄素的保健品未见有报道。下面是作者了解到的一些信息:山西恒康乳业公司下属天成生物公司从万寿菊中提取含有叶黄素的类胡萝卜素产品,用于鸡饲料中做添加剂,并在吕梁地区广泛栽培万寿菊(形成当地的观赏旅游型农业)设厂生产;华北工学院化学工程系对于从蚕沙中提取叶黄素的工艺研究取得了一定的进展;青岛大学天然色素研究所经过大量科研人员的多年研究,对于叶黄素的分离纯化、降解等方面取得了一些成果,生产出比较纯的叶黄素产品,但未形成大批量生产。叶黄素在我国烟草行业也有一定的应用,但对于提取叶黄素的工业化生产企业的产品和含有叶黄素的保健食品在我国市场上还未见有销售。

星期二, 三月 14, 2006 

固相萃取

固相萃取(Solid Phase Extraction SPE)就是利用固体吸附剂将液体样品中的目标化合物吸附,与样品的基体和干扰化合物分离,然后再用洗脱液洗脱或加热解吸附,达到分离和富集目标化合物的目的。

与液-液萃取相比固相萃取有很多优点:固相萃取不需要大量互不相溶的溶剂,处理过程中不会产生乳化现象,它采用高效﹑高选择性的吸附剂(固定相),能显著减少溶剂的用量,简化样品于处理过程,同时所需费用也有所减少。一般说来固相萃取所需时间为液-液萃取的1/2,费用为液-液萃取的1/5。
其缺点是:目标化合物的回收率和精密度要低于液-液萃取。
一. 固相萃取的模式及原理固相萃取实质上是一种液相色谱分离,其主要分离模式也与液相色谱相同,可分为正相(吸附剂极性大于洗脱液极性),反相(吸附剂极性小于洗脱液极性),离子交换和吸附。固相萃取所用的吸附剂也与液相色谱常用的固定相相同,只是在粒度上有所区别。正相固相萃取所用的吸附剂都是极性的,用来萃取(保留)极性物质。在正相萃取时目标化合物如何保留在吸附剂上,取决于目标化合物的极性官能团与吸附剂表面的极性官能团之间相互作用,其中包括了氢键,π—π键相互作用,偶极-偶极相互作用和偶极-诱导偶极相互作用以及其他的极性-极性作用。正相固相萃取可以从非极性溶剂样品中吸附极性化合物。反相固相萃取所用的吸附剂通常是非极性的或极性较弱的,所萃取的目标化合物通常是中等极性到非极性化合物。目标化合物与吸附剂间的作用是疏水性相互作用,主要是非极性-非极性相互作用,是范德华力或色散力。离子交换固相萃取所用的吸附剂是带有电荷的离子交换树脂,所萃取的目标化合物是带有电荷的化合物,目标化合物与吸附剂之间的相互作用是静电吸引力。固相萃取中吸附剂(固定相)的选择主要是根据目标化合物的性质和样品基体(即样品的溶剂)性质。目标化合物的极性与吸附剂的极性非常相似的时,可以得到目标化合物的最佳保留(最佳吸附)。两者极性越相似,保留越好(即吸附越好),所以要尽量选择与目标化合物极性相似的吸附剂。例如:萃取碳氢化合物(非极性)时,要采用反相固相萃取(此时是非极性吸附剂)。当目标化合物极性适中时,正﹑反相固相萃取都可使用。吸附剂的选择还要受样品的溶剂强度(即洗脱强度)的制约。样品溶剂的强度相对该吸附剂应该是较弱的,弱溶剂会增强目标化合物在吸附剂上的保留(吸附)。溶剂强度在正﹑反固相萃取中的顺序是不同的(见图3—13)。如果样品溶剂的强度太强,目标化合物将得不到保留(吸附)或保留很弱。例如:样品溶剂是正己烷时用反相固相萃取就不合适了,因为正己烷对反相固相萃取是强溶剂(见图3—13),目标化合物将不会吸附在吸附剂上;当样品溶剂是水时就可以用反相固相萃取,因为水对反相固相萃取是弱溶剂,不会影响目标化合物在吸附剂上的吸附。固相萃取选择分离模式和吸附剂时还要考虑以下几点:
1. 目标化合物在极性或非极性溶剂中的溶解度,这主要涉及淋洗液的选择。
2. 目标化合物有无可能离子化(可用调节pH 值实现离子化),从而决定是否采用离子交换固相萃取。
3. 目标化合物有无可能与吸附剂形成共价键,如形成共价键,在洗脱时可能会遇到麻烦。
4. 非目标化合物与目标化合物在吸附剂上吸附点上的竞争程度,这关系到目标化合物与干扰化合物是否能很好分离。

二. 固相萃取常用的吸附剂(固定相)鉴于固相萃取实质上是一种液相色谱的分离,故原则上讲,可作为液相色谱柱填料的材料都可用于固相萃取。但是,由于液相色谱的柱压可以较高,要求柱效较高,故其填料的粒度要求较严格,过去常用10μm粒径填料,现在高效柱多用5μ的m填料,甚至用了3μm的填料(随着HPLC泵压的提高,填料的粒径在逐渐减小)。对填料的粒径分布要求也很窄。固相萃取柱上所加压一般都不大,分离目的只是把目标化合物与干扰化合物和基体分开即可,柱效要求一般不高,故作为固相萃取吸附剂的填料都较粗,一般在40μm即可用,粒径分布要求也不严格,这样可以大大降低固相萃取柱的成本。常用于固相萃取的吸附剂类型及用途参见表3—4。

三. 固相萃取的装置及操作程序最简单的固相萃取装置就是一根直径为数毫米的小柱(图3—14),小柱可以是玻璃的,也可以是聚丙稀﹑聚乙烯﹑聚四氟乙烯等塑料的,还可以是不锈钢制成的。小柱下端有一孔径为20μm的烧结筛板,用以支撑吸附剂。如自制固相萃取小柱没有合适的烧结筛板时,也可以用填加玻璃棉来代替筛板,起到既能支撑固体吸附剂,又能让液体流过的作用。在筛板上填装一定量的吸附剂(100㎎~1000㎎,视需要而定),然后在吸附剂上再加一块筛板,以防止加样品时破坏柱床(没有筛板时也可以用玻璃棉替代)。目前已有各种规格的﹑装有各种吸附剂的固相萃取小柱出售,使用起来十分方便(图3—15)。固相萃取的一般操作程序如下:
1.活化吸附剂:在萃取样品之前要用适当的溶剂淋洗固相萃取小柱,以使吸附剂保持湿润,可以吸附目标化合物或干扰化合物。不同模式固相萃取小柱活化用溶剂不同:(1)反相固相萃取所用的弱极性或非极性吸附剂,通常用水溶性有机溶剂,如甲醇淋洗,然后用水或缓冲溶液淋洗。也可以在用甲醇淋洗之前先用强溶剂(如己烷)淋洗,以消除吸附剂上吸附的杂质及其对目标化合物的干扰。(2)正相固相萃取所用的极性吸附剂,通常用目标化合物所在的有机溶剂(样品基体)进行淋洗。(3)离子交换固相萃取所用的吸附剂,在用于非极性有机溶剂中的样品时,可用样品溶剂来淋洗;在用于极性溶剂中的样品时,可用水溶性有机溶剂淋洗后,再用适当PH 值的﹑并含有一定有机溶剂和盐的水溶液进行淋洗。为了使固相萃取小柱中的吸附剂在活化后到样品加入前能保持湿润,应在活化处理后在吸附剂上面保持大约1ml活化处理用的溶剂。

2.上样:将液态或溶解后的固态样品倒入活化后的固相萃取小柱,然后利用抽真空(图3—16),加压(图3—17)或离心(图3—18)的方法使样品进入吸附剂。

3. 洗涤和洗脱:在样品进入吸附剂,目标化合物被吸附后,可先用较弱的溶剂将弱保留干扰化合物洗掉,然后再用较强的溶剂将目标化合物洗脱下来,加以收集。淋洗和洗脱同前所述一样,可采用抽真空,加压或离心的方法使淋洗液或洗脱液流过吸附剂。如果在选择吸附剂时,选择对目标化合物吸附很弱或不吸附,而对干扰化合物有较强吸附的吸附剂时,也可让目标化合物先淋洗下来加以收集,而使干扰化合物保留(吸附)在吸附剂上,两者得到分离。图3—19给出了两种方法的示意图。在多数的情况下是使目标化合物保留在吸附剂上,最后用强溶剂洗脱,这样更有利于样品的净化。图3—20给出了固相萃取所采用的一般程序示意图。

为了方便固相萃取的使用,很多厂家除了生产各种规格和型号的固相萃取小柱之外,还研制开发了很多固相萃取的专用装置,使固相萃取使用起来更加方便简单。如Supelco公司提供了给单个固相萃取小柱加压的单管处理塞(图3—21),可方便的与固相萃取小柱配套使用。又如,为了能使多个固相萃取小柱同时进行抽真空,Supelco公司提供了12孔径和24孔径的真空多歧管装置(图3—22),可同时处理多个固相萃取小柱。我国中科院大连化学物理研究所,国家色谱研究分析中心也研制开发了真空固相萃取装置。

固相微萃取是在固相萃取基础上发展起来的一种新的萃取分离技术,与液—液萃取和固相萃取相比,具有操作时间短,样品量小,无需萃取溶剂,适于分析挥发性与非挥发性物质,重现性好等优点。很多研究结果表明,在样品中加入适当的内标进行定量分析时,其重现性和精密度都非常好。固相微萃取装置外型如一只微量进样器,由手柄(holder)和萃取头或纤维头(fiber)两部分构成,萃取头是一根1㎝长,涂有不同吸附剂的熔融纤维,接在不锈钢丝上,外套细不锈钢管(保护石英纤维不被折断),纤维头在钢管内可伸缩或进出,细不锈钢管可穿透橡胶或塑料垫片进行取样或进样。手柄用于安装或固定萃取头,可永远使用(图3—24)

固相微萃取关键在于选择不石英纤维上的涂层(吸附剂),要使目标化合物能吸附在涂层上,而干扰化合物和溶剂不吸附,一般是:目标化合物是非极性时选择非极性涂层;目标化合物是极性时选择极性涂层。固相微萃取的采样方法是将固相微萃取针管(不锈钢套管)穿过样品瓶密封垫,插入样品瓶中。然后推出萃取头,将萃取头浸入样品(浸入方式)或置于样品上部空间(顶空方式),进行萃取。萃取时间大约2—30分钟,以达到目标化合物吸附平衡为准。最后缩回萃取头,将针管拔出(图3—25)。

固相微萃取可用于气相色谱,也可用于液相色谱(图3—25)。用于GC时,是将固相微萃取针管(不锈钢套管)插入GC进样口,推手柄杆,伸出纤维头,使用进样口的高温热解吸目标化合物,解吸后被载气带入色谱柱。用于HPLC时,是将固相微萃取针管(不锈钢套管)插入固相微萃取/HPLC接口解吸池,然后再利用HPLC的流动相通过解吸池洗脱目标化合物,并将目标化合物带入色谱柱。

五. 固相萃取的应用固相萃取主要用于复杂样品中微量或痕量目标化合物的分离和富集。例如,生物体液(如血液,尿等)中药物及其代谢产物的分析,食品中有效成分或有害成分的分析,环保水样中各种污染物(可挥发性有机物和半挥发性有机物)的分析都可使用固相萃取将目标化合物分离出来,并加以富集,然后进行色谱分析。下面举两个具体分析实例加以说明。1. 血浆中苯并二氮杂草类药物(安定)的测定使用6ml的固相萃取柱,柱内填加500㎎C18吸附剂。用5ml甲醇活化,然后再用5ml水淋洗。将1ml 0.1M醋酸钠加入4ml血浆中,充分混合后倒入萃取柱内,抽滤。然后加入3ml水,抽滤30秒。再将固相萃取柱在1000~1500rpm离心机上离心5分钟。用3ml丙酮洗脱,收集洗脱液,将洗脱液在氮气流下缓缓加热(<45℃)至干燥。用200μl甲醇溶解残渣,进样20μl,进行hplc分析。hplc条件:>

星期一, 二月 06, 2006 

Vlaardingen

Vlaardingen